意大利統一
维基百科，自由的百科全书
意大利統一（意大利文：Risorgimento，「復甦」）是十九世紀至二十世紀初期間，將意大利半島內各個國家統一為意大利的政治及社會過程。
意大利統一開始和結束的確實日期已不可考，但大多數學者都同意統一是隨著1815年的維也納會議及拿破崙政權的結束而開始，亦隨著1871年的普法戰爭而結束，儘管最後一批收復的失地直至第一次世界大戰後聖日耳曼條約生效才加入意大利王國。
目录 |
[编辑] 背景
由拿破崙統治的意大利共和國及其後意大利王國的成立令國內人民產生民族主義的思想。當拿破崙的君主政權開始衰落，他之前確立的其他君主嘗試透過滿足民族主義者來鞏固他們的政權，為革命製造良好的時機。這些君主中包括向奧地利爭取在意大利王國繼任的意大利殖民統治者Eugène de Beau，以及要求意大利愛國者協助在其統治下統一意大利的若阿尚·繆拉（參閱 Proclama di Rimini）。
隨著拿破崙統治下的法國戰敗，維也納會議正式召開以重新畫定歐洲大陸。在意大利，會議恢復拿破崙時代前的各國獨立政府，當中一些是直接統治的，一些則受歐洲列強的強大影響。不過，多個意大利國家內都有團體再次推動一個統一的意大利國家的意念，令早已在民眾間點燃了的民族主義的火焰燃燒起來。當時，爭取意大利統一被認定是與奧地利帝國及哈布斯堡王朝對抗，因為它們直接控制著現時的意大利東北部以意大利文為母語的部分，同時亦是對抗統一的最強大的單一力量。奧地利帝國頑抗意大利半島（以及帝國內其他地方）的民族主義思維——當時，奧地利總理梅特涅指「意大利」這個詞語是「單純的地理用語」。藝術和文學思維亦轉向民族主義，其中最著名的也許是亚历山大·曼佐尼的I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed)。有些人將這本小說當作對奧地利的統治的批評。無論如何，這本小說在1822年出版，並在其後數年作出大幅修改；1840年版使用標準化的托斯卡納方言，這是作者深思熟慮後為了提供一種所有意大利人都可使用的標準語言而作出的努力。
支持統一的人亦面對教廷的反對，尤其在與給他們某程度上的自治權的教皇国建立邦聯制失敗後。當時的教宗庇護九世恐怕放棄當地的勢力會令意大利天主教徙受迫害(Hales, 1958)。
即使是希望見到半島統一成一個國家的人，很多不同的團體亦不能就統一國家的應實行的制度達成共識。其中一個建議（約1847年—1848年）認為應在教宗的統治下建立邦聯制。很多主要的革命團體希望建立一個共和國。但最後卻由一個國王維托里奧·埃曼努埃萊二世及其首相加富爾掌握了統一意大利為君主政體的權力。
其中一個最具影響力的革命組織是烧炭党，這秘密組織於十九世紀初在意大利南部成立。組織的意念來自法國大革命，成員主要來自中產階級和知識分子。維也納會議將意大利半島分給歐洲列強後，烧炭党分子分散到教皇国、薩丁尼亞王國、托斯卡纳大公国、摩德纳公国以及伦巴第-威尼斯王国。這些國家對该組織非常恐懼，因而通過一個條例，對參與烧炭党會議的人判以死刑。但組織仍繼續存在，並由1820年起發起多次暴動。烧炭党因拿破崙三世統一意大利失敗而將他判處死刑，更差點成功以此為由刺殺他。統一運動的領袖大多是這組織的成員。
統一運動中兩個重要人物是意大利統一的倡導者糾澤佩·馬志尼和糾澤佩·加里波底。在較保守的君主立憲支持者中，加富爾和其後成為第一個意大利國王的維托里奧·埃曼努埃萊二世同為重要人物。
熱那亞人馬志尼於1830年成為烧炭党的成員。他在革命運動中的活動令他在加入後不久便被囚禁。在獄中，他斷定意大利「可以並因此應該」統一，又系統化他建立「單一、自由、獨立、共和」的國家並以羅馬為首都的革命活動。1831年出獄後，他到了馬賽，在當地成立了一個新政治組織，名為La Giovine Italia ("Young Italy")。新組織的格言是"God and the People"，以統一意大利為目標。
尼斯（後來薩丁尼亞王國的一部分）人加里波底在1834年參與皮埃蒙特的起義，因而被判死刑，但最後逃亡到南美洲。他在當地逗留了十四年，參與多場戰爭，於1848年返回意大利。
[编辑] 早期革命活動（1820年至1830年）
[编辑] 燒炭黨叛亂（1820年—1821年）
1814年燒炭黨開始在拿坡里組織革命活動；至1820年組織已強大得足以憑自己的軍隊侵略拿坡里，迫使國王答應實行燒炭黨草議的新憲法。但翌年革命被奧地利人以「神聖同盟」在奧地利、普魯士和俄羅斯之間的中介人身分鎮壓。
[编辑] 兩西西里王國叛亂
1820年，西班牙人成功推翻憲法，促進了意大利相似的活動。從西班牙人的經驗得到啟發，兩西西里王國的軍隊中由古格雷莫·佩佩指揮的一個團——一個燒炭黨——造反，征服兩西西里王國的半島部分。國王斐迪南德一世同意頒佈新憲法。但革命人士無法贏得公眾的支持，更成為神聖同盟的奧牙利軍隊。斐迪南德一世廢除憲法，並開始有系統地迫害革命者。西西里很多革命支持者，包括米谢勒·阿玛尼，在其後數十年被迫流亡海外。
[编辑] 皮埃蒙特叛亂
皮埃蒙特的革命運動領袖是Santorre di Santarosa，他希望能趕走奧地利人，並將意大利統一到薩伏依王朝下。皮埃蒙特的革命在Alessandria開始，軍隊在當地採用了Cisalpine Republic的綠、白、紅三色旗。在國王離開國家時代為處理事務的攝政王通過新憲法以安撫革命者，但國王回國後卻推翻了憲法，並向神聖同盟尋求援助。Di Santarosa的軍隊戰敗。
[编辑] 1830年叛亂
1830年左右，支持一個統一的意大利的革命意識高漲；一連串叛亂為在意大利半島建立一個國家奠定基礎。
The Duke of Modena, Francis IV野心很大，希望藉著擴大勢力範圍而成為意大利北部的國王。1826年，Francis明言他不會阻止破壞意大利統一的反對勢力。受到聲明的鼓勵，當地的革命人士開始組織起來。
1831年，七月革命期間，革命人士迫使國王退位，並在法國新國王路易·菲利浦的鼓勵下開始七月王朝。路易·菲利浦答應包括Ciro Menotti在內的革命人士，如果奧地利嘗試干擾軍隊，他會作出干預。不過，因為害怕會失去王位，路易·菲利浦在Menotti計劃的起義中沒有作出干預。但事實並非如此——在1831年，Papal police得悉Menotti計劃的叛亂，將他和其他謀反者拘捕。
同時，亦有其他叛亂在波隆那、Forlì、拉文納、Imola、費拉拉、Pesaro和Urbino的Papal Legations發生。這些以三色旗取代Papal flag的成功的革命迅速佈滿整個Papal Legations，他們新成立的當地政府宣稱建立了一個統一個意大利國家。
在Modena及Papal Legations的革命掀起了Duchy of Parma的類似活動，大公國亦採用了三色旗；Marie Louise公爵離開了城市。
發生叛亂的省計劃統一為Province Italiane unite（統一的意大利省），當時的教宗國瑞十六世向奧地利求助以對抗造反者。梅特涅警告路易·菲利浦奧地利沒有意圖讓意大利的問題自由發展，而且不會忍受法國的干預。路易·菲利浦拒絕提供任何軍事援助，更逮捕了在法國居住的意大利愛國人士。
1831年春天，奧地利軍隊開始進軍意大利半島，慢慢鎮壓每個發生了革命的省中的抵抗，結束了很多成熟的革命運動，並捕獲了其領袖，包括Menotti。
[编辑] 1848年—1849年的革命
1848年1月，革命騷亂開始在西西里島發生。不久，革命擴展至整個洲。1848年2月，法國國王路易·菲利浦被迫逃亡，一個共和國宣告成立。騷亂無可避免擴展至意大利，事實上革命者亦強迫大部分意大利統治者實行君主立憲，而在米蘭和威尼斯的起義亦暫時驅逐了奧地利人。
不久，薩丁尼亞王國國王卡洛·阿爾貝托認定統一意大利的時刻已經來臨。宣稱「意大利會自己建立自己」，他向奧地利宣戰。在Battle of Custoza中，他於7月24日迅速被奧地利元帥Josef Radetzky打敗。雙方很快便達成停戰協定，Radetzky重新控制整個Lombardy-Venetia及保全了威尼斯，一個共和國在Daniele Manin下於威尼斯宣告成立。
當Radetzky鞏固他在Lombardy-Venetia的勢力，以及阿爾貝托的傷勢漸愈時，事情在意大利其他部份變得更嚴重。三月時勉強答應憲法的君主開始與他們的憲政大臣發生衝突，經常導致正面衝突。最初，共和國取得優勢，迫使君主逃離他們的首都。這包括當時的教宗庇護九世。庇護九世最初被視為改革者，但與革命人士的衝突令他對君主立憲政府的理念感到酸溜溜。至1849年初他逃離羅馬。激進的意大利民族主義者，包括馬志尼及加里波底，宣告成立羅馬共和國。
列強有機會對羅馬共和國的成立作出回應前，在阿爾貝托的軍隊接受逃亡海外的波蘭元帥Albert Chrzanowski訓練的同時，阿爾貝托決定再次與奧地利決定。1849年3月23日，他迅速在Novara中被RadetzkyHe擊敗。這次戰敗是最後一次。阿爾貝托退位，由他的兒子維托里奧·伊曼紐爾二世接任，皮埃蒙特統一意大利或征服Lombardy的野心亦已經——至少暫時——結束。戰爭於8月9日簽署條約後正式結束。
戰後剩下羅馬及威尼斯共和國。四月，Nicolas Oudinot下的一支法國軍隊被派遣到羅馬。表面上，法國人希望協助教宗及其國民和解，但不久法國人被迫傾向某一方，並決定恢復教宗的地位。經過兩個月的圍城，羅馬於1849年6月29日投降，教宗復位。加里波底和馬志尼再次流亡海外——1850年，加里波底成為紐約市的居民。同時，奧地利人包圍威尼斯，威尼斯被迫於8月24日投降。奧地利人亦發起回復意大利中部的秩序，恢復被逼走的太子的地位，並建立他們對Papal Legations的控制。革命因而完全瓦解。
[编辑] 意大利国家的建立
[编辑] 1859年战争及结果
尽管卡洛·阿爾貝托已经被奥地利人彻底击败, 但是皮埃蒙特人并没有完全放弃希望。加富尔, 在1852年成为首相, 同样也有着扩张的雄心。 但是他已经察觉到仅凭撒丁王国自己的力量是无法完成的，因此，他希望借助英法的力量赶走奥地利人。
为此，撒丁王国在1855年加入了克里米亚战争并支持英国和法国。但是这一做法没有取得预期的效果——意大利人的利益在战后的巴黎和会上被忽视了。尽管如此，这场战争还是取得了一个有益的结果，奥地利被孤立了，因为它试图在战争中对战争双方搞平衡，以至于战争双方对其都没有好感。
在1858年1月14日, 一个意大利民族主义者Felice Orsini试图行刺法国皇帝拿破仑三世。失败后被捕入狱,他在狱中写信给拿破仑三世，呼吁他给予意大利民族主义者以帮助。拿破仑三世在年轻的时候曾加入过烧炭党，他还认为自己是一个进步的思想家，在经历了这件事情之后，开始坚信自己应该为意大利的命运做些什么。1858年夏，加富尔与拿破仑会面，双方同意对奥地利联合作战。按照协议撒丁王国在战后接收奥地利在意大利的领地（伦巴第和威尼斯）以及帕尔马和摩德纳, 与此同时，法国将获得撒丁王国在阿尔卑斯山麓的领地薩伏依和尼斯。意大利中部和南部将保持原样，尽管据传皇帝的侄子将取代哈布斯堡家族而成为托斯卡纳的主人。为了使法国的干涉不被视为侵略行径，加富尔将煽动伦巴第的革命活动，从而引诱奥地利的入侵。
然而，事情的进展并不如计划的那样顺利。奥地利人在处理皮埃蒙特人引发的叛乱时表现得出奇地有耐心。皮埃蒙特人在1859年三月的总动员在一定程度上宣告失败，从而使得引诱奥地利入侵的计划破产。没有奥地利的入侵，法国就无法名正言顺地“干涉”。失去了法国的支持，加富尔就无法承担战争的风险了。正在这个时候，奥地利发出了解除动员的最后通牒，皮埃蒙特当然加以拒绝，使得奥地利看起来是入侵者，使得法国能够顺利“干涉”。
The war itself was quite short. The Austrian advance into Piedmont was incompetent, and they were unable to secure the Alpine passes before the arrival of the French army, led personally by Napoleon III. At Magenta on June 4, the French and Sardinians were victorious over the Austrian army of Count Gyulai, leading to Austrian withdrawal from most of Lombardy and a triumphal entry by Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel into Milan. On June 24, a second battle was fought between the two armies at Solferino. This bloody engagement, at which the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph had also taken personal command of his troops, saw little skill demonstrated by the leaders on either side, but the French were again victorious. The Austrians withdrew behind the Quadrilateral of fortresses on the borders of Venetia.
There were many reasons Napoleon III sought peace at this point. Fear that a long and bloody campaign would be necessary to conquer Venetia, fear for his position at home, worry at the intervention of German states, and fear of a too-powerful Piedmont-Sardinia led him to look for a way out. On July 11, he met privately with Franz Joseph at Villafranca, without the knowledge of his Piedmontese allies. Together, the two agreed on the outlines of a settlement to the conflict. The Austrians would retain Venetia, but would cede Lombardy to the French, who would then immediately cede it to Piedmont (the Austrians were unwilling to themselves cede the area to Piedmont). Otherwise, the Italian borders would remain unchanged. In Central Italy, where the authorities had universally been expelled following the outbreak of war, the rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, who had fled to Austria, would be restored, while Papal control of the Legations would be resumed. Because Napoleon had not fulfilled the terms of his agreement with Piedmont, he would not gain Savoy and Nice.
The Sardinians were outraged at this betrayal by their ally. Cavour demanded that the war be carried on regardless, and resigned when the more realistic Victor Emmanuel determined that acquiescence was the only realistic option. But the Villafranca agreement would prove a dead letter long before it was formalized into the Treaty of Zurich in November. Piedmontese troops occupied the smaller Italian states and the Legations, and the French proved unwilling to pressure them to withdraw and allow the restoration of the old order, while the Austrians no longer had the power to compel it. In December, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Legations were unified into the United Provinces of Central Italy, and, encouraged by the British, were seeking annexation by the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Cavour, who triumphantly returned to power in January 1860, wished to annex the territories, but realized that French acquiescence was necessary. Napoleon III agreed to recognize the Piedmontese annexation in exchange for Savoy and Nice. On March 20, 1860, the annexations occurred. Now The Kingdom of Sardinia encompassed most of Northern and Central Italy.
[编辑] The Mille expedition
Thus, by the spring of 1860, only four states remained in Italy - the Austrians in Venetia, the Papal States (now minus the Legations), the new expanded Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. There is no especial reason to think that Cavour now envisaged the unification of the rest of Italy under Piedmontese rule, but events proved to have a life of their own.
Francis II of the Two Sicilies, the son and successor of Ferdinand II (the infamous "King Bomba"), had a well-organized army of 150,000 men. But his father's tyranny had inspired many secret societies, and the kingdom's Swiss Mercenaries were unexpectedly recalled home according to a new Swiss law, leaving Francis only his mostly unreliable native troops. It was a critical opportunity for the unification movement. In April 1860, separate insurrections began in Messina and Palermo in Sicily, which always resented Neapolitan rule. These were easily suppressed by loyal troops.
In the meantime, Garibaldi, a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war with France, convinced Garibaldi to turn his forces to Sicily, instead. On May 6, 1860, Garibaldi and his cadre of about a thousand Italian volunteers (called I Mille), steamed from Quarto near Genoa, and after a stop in Talamone on May 11 landed near Marsala on the west coast of Sicily.
Near Salemi, Garibaldi's army attracted scattered bands of rebels, together defeating the opposing army at Calatafimi on the 13th. Within three days, the invading force had swelled to 4,000 men. On May 14, Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily, in the name of Victor Emmanuel. After waging various successful but hard-fought battles, Garibaldi advanced upon the Sicilian capital of Palermo, announcing his arrival by beacon-fires kindled at night. On May 27, the force laid siege to the Porta Termina of Palermo, while a mass uprising of street and barricade fighting broke out within the city.
With Palermo deemed insurgent, Neapolitan General Lanza, arriving in Sicily with some 25,000 troops, furiously bombarded Palermo nearly to ruins. With the intervention of a British admiral, an armistice was declared, leading to the Neapolitan troops' departure and surrender of the town to Garibaldi and his much smaller army.
This resounding success demonstrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government. Garibaldi's fame spread and many Italians began to consider him a national hero. Doubt, confusion and dismay overtook the Neapolitan court — the king hastily summoned his ministry and offered to restore an earlier constitution, but these efforts failed to rebuild the peoples' trust in Bourbon governance.
Six weeks after the surrender of Palermo, Garibaldi attacked Messina. Within a week its citadel was surrendered. Having conquered Sicily, Garibaldi proceeded to the mainland, crossing the Straits of Messina with the Neapolitan fleet at hand. The garrison at Reggio Calabria promptly surrendered. Progressing northward, the populace everywhere hailed him and military resistance faded. At the end of August he was at Cosenza, and on September 5 at Eboli, near Salerno. Meanwhile Naples had been declared in a state of siege, and on September 6 the king gathered the 4,000 troops still faithful to him and retreated over the Volturno river. The next day Garibaldi, with a few followers, entered Naples, whose people openly welcomed him.
[编辑] Defeat of Naples
Though Garibaldi had easily taken the capital, the Neapolitan army had not joined the rebellion en masse, holding firm along the Volturno River. Garibaldi's irregular bands of about 25,000 men could not drive away the king or take the fortresses of Capua and Gaeta without the help of the Sardinian army.
But the Sardinian army could only come by way of the Papal States, which extended across the entire center of the peninsula. Thumbing his nose at the Holy See, Garibaldi announced his intent to proclaim a "Kingdom of Italy" from Rome, the capital city of Pope Pius IX. Seeing this as a threat to the domain of the Catholic Church, Pius threatened excommunication for supporting such an effort. Afraid Garibaldi would attack Rome, Catholics worldwide sent money and volunteers for the Papal Army, which was commanded by General Louis Lamoricière, a French exile.
Settling the standoff now rested with Louis Napoleon. If he had let Garibaldi have his way the latter would, no doubt, have quickly ended the temporal sovereignty of the pope and made Rome the capital of Italy. But Napoleon seems to have arranged with Cavour to leave the king of Sardinia free to take possession of Naples, Umbria and the other provinces, provided that Rome and the "patrimony of St. Peter" were left intact.
It was in this situation that a Sardinian force of two army corps, under Fanti and Cialdini, marched to the frontier of the Papal States, its object being not Rome but Naples. The Papal troops under Lamoricière advanced against Cialdini, but were quickly defeated and besieged in the fortress of Ancona, finally surrendering on September 29. On October 9, Victor Emmanuel II arrived and took command. There was no longer a papal army to oppose him, and the march southward proceeded unopposed.
Garibaldi distrusted the pragmatic Cavour, particularly due to Cavour's role in the French annexation of Nice, Garibaldi's birthplace. Nevertheless he trusted Victor Emmanuel. When the king entered Sessa Aurunca at the head of his army, Garibaldi willingly handed over his dictatorial power. After greeting Victor Emmanuel in Teano with the title of King of Italy, Garibaldi entered Naples riding beside the king. He then retired to the island of Caprera. The remaining work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.
The progress of the Sardinian army compelled Francis II to give up his line along the river, and he eventually took refuge with his best troops in the fortress of Gaeta. His courage boosted by his resolute young wife, Duchess Marie Sophie of Bavaria, Francis mounted a stubborn defense that lasted three months. But European allies refused him aid, food and munitions became scarce, and disease set in, so the garrison was forced to surrender. Nonetheless, ragtag groups of Neapolitans loyal to Francis would fight on against the Italian government for years to come.
The fall of Gaeta brought the unification movement to the brink of fruition — only Rome and Venetia remained to be added. On February 18, 1861, Victor Emmanuel assembled the deputies of the first Italian parliament that acknowledged his supremacy at Turin, and in their presence assumed the title of King of Italy. In March the parliament declared Rome Capital of Italy. Three months later Cavour, having seen his life's work nearly complete, died. Supposedly, when he was given the last rights, he said: "Frate, libero Stato e libera Chiesa" (Friar, a free State and a free Church); and he consoled himself by repeating: "L'Italia è fatta, L'Italia è fatta" (Italy is made, Italy is made).
[编辑] Garibaldi wants Rome: Rome or Death
Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchical government, and continued to agitate for a republic. With the motto "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. There were obstacles, though. A challenge against the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and French troops were stationed in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions.
Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he attacked Rome. Frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, he organized a new venture. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed again at Palermo, where he gathered volunteers for the campaign, under the slogan Roma o Morte (Rome or Death). The garrison of Messina, loyal to the king's instructions, barred their passage to the mainland. Garibaldi's force, now numbering two thousand, turned south and set sail from Catania. Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at Melito on August 14, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains.
Far from supporting this endeavour, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino, against the volunteer bands. On August 28 the two forces met in the Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, but Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. The volunteers suffered several casualties, and Garibaldi himself was wounded; many were taken prisoner. Garibaldi was taken by steamer to Varignano, where he was honorably imprisoned for a time, but finally released.
Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a safer means to the acquisition of the Papal States. He negotiated the removal of the French troops from Rome through a treaty with Napoleon III in September 1864, by which the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops within two years. The pope was to expand his own army during that time so as to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French troops departed from Rome, in spite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal Italy was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers for the first time probably in a thousand years.
The seat of government was moved in 1865 from Turin, the old Sardinian capital, to Florence, where the first Italian parliament was summoned. This arrangement created such disturbances in Turin that the king was forced to leave that city hastily for his new capital.
[编辑] Third Independence War (1866)
In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Austria-Hungary contested with Prussia the position of leadership among the German states. The Kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to capture Venetia from Austrian rule and allied itself with Prussia. Austria tried to convince the Italian government to accept Venetia in exchange for non-intervention. However, on April 8, Italy and Prussia powers signed an agreement that supported Italy's acquisition of Venetia, and on June 20, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Within the context of Italian unification, the Austro-Prussian war is called Third Independence War, after the First (1848) and the Second (1859 – 1861).
Victor Emmanuel hastened to lead an army across the Mincio to the invasion of Venetia, while Garibaldi was to invade the Tyrol with his Hunters of the Alps. The enterprise ended in disaster. The Italian army encountered the Austrians at Custoza on June 24 and suffered a crushing defeat. On July 20 the Regia Marina was defeated in the battle of Lissa. Italy's fortunes were not all so dismal, though. The following day, Garibaldi's volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the battle of Bezzecca, and moved toward Trento.
Meanwhile, Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck saw that his own ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with Austria on July 26. Italy, deserted by her ally, officially laid down its arms on August 12. Garibaldi was called back from his successful march and resigned with a brief telegram reading only Obbedisco (I obey).
In spite of Italy's poor showing, Prussia's success on the northern front obligated Austria to cede Venetia. Under the terms of a peace treaty signed in Vienna on October 12, Emperor Franz Joseph had already agreed to cede Venetia to Louis Napoleon III in exchange for non-intervention in the Austro-Prussian War and thus Napoleon III ceded Venetia to Italy on October 19 in exchange for the earlier Italian aquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy.
Austrian forces put up some opposition to the invading Italians, to little effect. Victor Emmanuel entered Venice in triumph, and performed an act of homage in the Piazza San Marco.
[编辑] Rome
[编辑] Mentana and Villa Glori
The national party, with Garibaldi at its head, still aimed at the possession of Rome, as the historic capital of the peninsula. In 1867 he made a second attempt to capture Rome, but the papal army, strengthened with a new French auxiliary force, defeated his badly armed volunteers at Mentana. In Mentana, at the Ara dei Caduti (Altar of the Fallen), there is a monument with a very moving inscription above the mass grave of those who fell in 1867. Subsequently, the French army of occupation returned to Civitavecchia, where it was kept for several years.
Before the defeat at Mentana, Enrico Cairoli, his brother Giovanni and 70 companions had made a daring attempt to take Rome. The group had embarked in Terni and floated down the Tiber. Their arrival in Rome was to coincide with an uprising inside the city. On 22 October 1867, the revolutionaries inside Rome seized control of the Capitoline Hill and of Piazza Colonna. Unfortunately, when the Cairoli and their companions arrived at Villa Glori, on the northern outskirts of Rome, the uprising had already been suppressed. During the night of 22-23 October 1867, the group was surrounded by papal Zouaves, and Giovanni was severely wounded. Enrico was mortally wounded and bled to death in Giovanni's arms.
At the summit of Villa Glori, near the spot where Enrico died, there is a plain white column dedicated to the Cairoli brothers and their 70 companions. About 100 meters to the left from the top of the Spanish Steps, there is a bronze monument of Giovanni holding the dying Enrico in his arm. A plaque lists the names of their companions. Giovanni never recovered from his wounds and from the tragic events of 1867. According to an eyewitness (Michele Rosi, I Cairoli, L. Capelli Ed., Bologna, 1929, pp. 223-224), when Giovanni died on 11 September 1869:
- "Negli ultimi momenti gli parve vedere Garibaldi e fece vista di accoglierlo con trasporto. Udii (così narra un amico presente) che disse tre volte: 'L'unione dei francesi ai papalini fu il fatto terribile!' pensava a Mentana. Chiamò più volte Enrico, suo fratello, 'perché lo aiutasse!' poi disse: 'ma vinceremo di certo; andremo a Roma!'" [In the last moments, he had a vision of Garibaldi and seemed to greet him with enthusiasm. I heard (so says a friend who was present) him say three times: 'The union of the French to the papal political supporters was the terrible fact!' he was thinking about Mentana. Many times he called Enrico, that he might help him! then he said: 'but we will certainly win; we will go to Rome!']
[编辑] 20 September 1870
In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began, and French Emperor Napoleon III recalled his garrison from Rome and could no longer protect the Papal States. Following the wartime collapse of the Second French Empire at the battle of Sedan, widespread public demonstrations demanded that the Italian government take Rome. King Victor Emmanuel II sent Count Ponza di San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face-saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian Army into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope.
- The Pope’s reception of San Martino [10 September 1870] was unfriendly. Pius IX allowed violent outbursts to escape him. Throwing the King’s letter upon the table he exclaimed, "Fine loyalty! You are all a set of vipers, of whited sepulchres, and wanting in faith." He was perhaps alluding to other letters received from the King. After, growing calmer, he exclaimed: "I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!" San Martino was so mortified that he left the next day. [Raffaele De Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, Archibald Constable & Co, London (1909) Chap. XXXIV, p. 444]
The Italian Army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna, crossed the papal frontier on 11 September and advanced slowly toward Rome, hoping that a peaceful entry could be negotiated. The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on 19 September and placed Rome under a state of siege. On September 20, after a cannonade of three hours had breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia, the Bersaglieri entered Rome and marched down Via Pia, which was subsequently renamed Via XX Settembre. 49 Italian soldiers and 19 papal Zouaves died. Rome and Latium were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite.
Initially the Italian government had offered to let the pope keep the Leonine City (the walled part of Rome on the opposite side of the Tiber from the Seven Hills of Rome). But the pope rejected the offer because acceptance would have been an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom's rule over his former domain. Pope Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican, although he was not actually restrained from coming and going. Rather, being deposed and stripped of much of his former power also removed a measure of personal protection — if he had walked the streets of Rome he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private. Officially, the capital was not moved from Florence to Rome until early 1871.
In Chap. XXXIV De Cesare also made the following observations:
- The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon’s feet--that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the Conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the Pontiff. [p. 440]
- For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations ... . Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured. [p. 443]
[编辑] Modern era
Italian unification was completed at the end of World War I with the annexation of Trieste and Trento, with the respective territories of Friuli Venezia Giulia and Trentino.
The Kingdom of Italy had declared neutrality at the beginning of the war, officially because the alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary was a defensive one, but actually to get the best offer for its contribution to the war. Austria-Hungary requested Italian neutrality, while the Triple Entente its intervention. With the London Pact, signed in April 1915, Italy accepted to declare war against the Central Powers, in exchange for the irredent territories of Friuli, Trentino and Dalmatia (see Italia irredenta). The new front contributed to the defeat of the Central Powers.
[编辑] Secession movements
The Italian unification process was popular with the Italian people. Nevertheless, dissenters were present in the 19th century (mostly the rulers of the annexed states), and regionalist sympathies continue to the present day. There are two chief secession movements represented by active political parties: one in the North (Lega Nord), and one in the South (Due Sicilie). The former has elected representatives to the national parliament.
A similar situation exists with the self-proclaimed principality of Seborga. Its historical claim to independence lies in being excluded from various treaties that unified the modern Italian state. Consequently, it will not identify itself as a "secession" movement, since it claims that it was never a part of Italy in the first place. Seborga's claims of independence have not been recognized by any government.
The Italian region of South Tyrol had a strong secession movement headed by the Austro-Germanic majority in the region for unification with Austria — the movement was strongest directly after the Second World War. Secessionist parties still exist, but the secessionist movement has been mostly pacified by the granting of substantial autonomy by the Italian government.
[编辑] 參考資料
- The Risorgimento: A Time for Reunification
- Women of the Risorgimento
- Raffaele De Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, Archibald Constable & Co, London (1909)
- Pio Nono: A Study in European Politics and Religion in the Nineteenth Century by E.E.Y. Hales (P.J. Kenedy, 1954)
- The Catholic Church in the Modern World by E.E.Y. Hales (Doubleday, 1958)
- Edgar Holt, The Making of Italy 1815-1870, Atheneum, New York (1971).
[编辑] 相關條目
- 糾澤佩·馬志尼、糾澤佩·加里波底、加富爾、維托里奧·埃曼努埃萊二世
- Birth of the Italian Republic
- Historical states of Italy
- Prisoner in the Vatican
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