Utilizator:Roamata/daneza

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Daneza (dansk) aparţine grupului de Limbi Nord Germanice (mai cunoscut şi ca limbi Scandinavice), un subgrup al Limbilor Germanice ramură a Limbilor Indo-Europene. Este vorbită de circa 6 milioane de persoane majoritatea aflate în Danemarca şi aproximativ 50,000 de persoane aflate în partea nordică Schleswig-Holstein a Germaniei, unde este limbă minoritară. Daneza este limbă oficială în Groenlanda şi Insulele Faroe. În Islanda, parte a Danemarcei până în 1944, daneza este studiată ca şi principală limbă străină.

Limba a derivat dintr-un dialect mai vechi pe parcursul Secolului XIII şi a început să devină o limbă distinctă faţă de alte limbi scandinavice odată cu prima traducere a Bibliei în 1550, definind o ortografie diferită de Suedeza, de aceea daneza scrisă a rămas mult mai uşor de înţeles pentru suedezi decât cea vorbită. daneza modernă se caracterizează printr-o tendinţă accentuată de eliminare a multor sunete ceea ce o face extrem de dificilă de stăpânit pentru străini.

[modifică] Clasificare şi limbi înrudite

Daneza este o limbă Est Scandinavică, la fel ca şi limba suedeză. Deşi limba norvegiană este clasificată ca o limbă Vest Scandinavică împreună cu limba faroeză şi limba islandeză, o clasificare mai recentă bazată pe inteligibilitatea reciprocă a limbilor sugerează islandeza şi faroeza ca fiind dintr-un ramură de Scandinavă Insulară, iar Norvegiana, Daneza şi Suedeza sunt considerate a fi limbi din ramura Scandinavă de Continent. Daneza scrisă şi Norvegiana Bokmål sunt în mod special asemănătoare, deşi fonetica şi metrica celor trei limbi sunt uşor diferite. Vorbitorii oricăreia dintre cele trei limbi înţeleg cu uşurinţă celelalte 2 limbi, dar studille au relevat totuşi că vorbitorii de norvegiana de obicei înţeleg mult mai bine daneza şi suedeza decât înţeleg danezii şi suedezii oricare din celelalte limbi.

[modifică] Istorie

Articol principal: Istoria limbii daneze

This is the approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century. The red area is the distribution of the dialect Old West Norse; the orange area is the spread of the dialect Old East Norse. The pink area is Old Gutnish and the green area is the extent of the other Germanic languages with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility.

In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects, Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden).

Old East Norse is in Sweden called Runic Swedish and in Denmark Runic Danish, but until the 12th century, the dialect was the same in the two countries. The dialects are called runic due to the fact that the main body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, which only had 16 letters. Due to the limited number of runes, some runes were used for a range of phonemes, such as the rune for the vowel u which was also used for the vowels o, ø and y, and the rune for i which was also used for e.

A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong æi (Old West Norse ei) to the monophthong e, as in stæin to sten. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain and the later stin. There was also a change of au as in dauðr into ø as in døðr. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from tauþr into tuþr. Moreover, the øy (Old West Norse ey) diphthong changed into ø as well, as in the Old Norse word for "island".

From 1100 and onwards, the dialect of Denmark began to diverge from that of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark which created a series of minor dialectal boundaries, isoglosses, ranging from Zealand to Svealand.

Some famous authors of works in Danish are existential philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, prolific fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen, and playwright Ludvig Holberg. Three 20th century Danish authors have become Nobel Prize laureates in Literature: Karl Adolph Gjellerup and Henrik Pontoppidan (joint recipients in 1917) and Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (awarded 1944).

Danish was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England. Many Danish derived words such as gate (gade) for street, still survive in Yorkshire and other parts of eastern England colonized by Danish Vikings. The city of York was once the Danish settlement of Jorvik.

The first translation of the Bible in Danish was published in 1550.

[modifică] Distribuţie Geografică

Danish is the official language of Denmark, one of two official languages of Greenland (the other is Greenlandic), and one of two official languages of the Faeroes (the other is Faeroese). In addition, there is a small community of Danish speakers in Schleswig, the portion of Germany bordering Denmark, where it is an officially recognized and protected regional language. Furthermore, it is one of the official languages of the European Union.

[modifică] Dialecte

Standard Danish (rigsdansk or rigsmål) is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital of Copenhagen. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 20% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area and most government agencies, institutions and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, something that has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm. Though Oslo and Stockholm are quite dominant in terms of speech standards, cities like Bergen, Gothenburg and the Malmö-Lund region are large and influential enough to create secondary regional norms, making the standard language more varied than is the case with Danish. The general agreement is that Standard Danish is based on a form of Copenhagen dialect, but the specific norm is, as with most language norms, difficult to pinpoint for both laymen and linguists. More distinct "genuine" dialects still exist in smaller communities, but most speakers in these areas generally speak a regionalized form of Standard Danish. Usually an adaption of the local dialect to rigsdansk is spoken, though code-switching between the neutralized norm and a distinct dialect is common.

Danish dialects are divided into three general dialect groups:

• Østdansk or Københavnsk ("Eastern Danish") or ("Copenhagenish")
• Ødansk ("Island Danish")
• Jysk ("Jutlandish")

Historically, Eastern Danish includes what is today considered Southern Swedish dialects like Scanian and the dialect spoken on the island of Bornholm in the Baltic between the coasts Sweden and Germany. The background for this lies in the loss of originally Danish provinces like Blekinge, Halland and Skåne to Sweden in 1658. While many similarities can be found in Southern Swedish and the Bornholm-dialect, they are more similar to the modern national standards than to each other. The Bornholm-dialect has also maintained a distinction between three grammatical genders, rather than just two in Standard Danish and lacks the diphthongs used in the standard language.

[modifică] Fonetică

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The sound system of Danish is in many ways unique among the world's languages. It is quite prone to considerable reduction and assimilation of both consonants and vowels even in very formal standard language. A rare feature is the presence of a prosodic feature called stød in Danish (lit. "push; thrust"), absent in some southern dialects. This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice, occasionally realized as a glottal stop (especially in emphatic pronunciation). It can be the only distinguishing feature between certain words, thus creating minimal pairs (e.g. bønder "peasants" with stød vs. bønner "beans" without). The distribution of stød in the lexicon is obviously related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian tonal word accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish, including the national standard languages. Most linguists today believe that stød is a development of the word accents, rather than the other way round. Stød generally occurs in words that have "accent 1" in Swedish and Norwegian and that were monosyllabic in Old Norse, while no-stød occurs in words that have "accent 2" in Swedish and Norwegian and that were polysyllabic in Old Norse.

Unlike the neighboring Continental Scandinavian languages, the prosody of Danish does not have phonemic pitch. Stress is phonemic in and distinguishes words such as billigst ['bilist] "cheapest" and bilist [bi'list] "car driver".

[modifică] Vocale

Modern Standard Danish has 26 vowel phonemes, out of which all but two can be both long and short, schwa and /ɐ/. The long and short realizations often differ in quality and there are several allophones that differ if they occur together with an /r/. For example, /ø/ is lowered when it occurs either before or after /r/ and /a/ is pronounced [æ] when it's long.

[modifică] Consoane

/b, d, g/ are devoiced in all contexts. /v, ð/ often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as approximants. No distinction between /pʰ~b/ and /tˢ~d/ is made in certain contexts, such as after /s/, between short vowels and in word-final position. Hence lappe and labbe are rendered [labə]. The combination of /sj/ is realized as a alveolo-palatal fricative, [ɕ], making it possible to postulate a tentative /ɕ/-phoneme in Danish. /r/ can be described as "tautosyllabic", meaning that it take the form of either a phonetic consonant or vowel. At the beginning of a word, it is pronounced as a uvular fricative, [ʁ], with less friction between syllables, and as a non-syllabic low central vowel, [ɐ]. The latter is almost identical to how /r/ is often pronounced in German.

[modifică] Gramatica

Pentru detalii, vedeţi articolul Danish grammarvedeţi articolele [[{{{2}}}]] şi [[{{{3}}}]]vedeţi articolele [[{{{4}}}]], [[{{{5}}}]] şi [[{{{6}}}]]vedeţi articolele [[{{{7}}}]], [[{{{8}}}]], [[{{{9}}}]] şi [[{{{10}}}]].

The infinitive forms of most Danish verbs end in a vowel, which in almost all cases is the letter e. Verbs are conjugated according to tense, but otherwise do not vary according to person or number. For example the present tense form of the Danish infinitive verb spise ("to eat") is spiser; this form is the same regardless of whether the subject is in the first, second, or third person, or whether it is singular or plural. This extreme ease of conjugating verbs is made up for by the many irregular verbs in the language.

Danish nouns fall into two grammatical genders: common and neuter. While the majority of nouns (ca. 90%) have the common gender and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. A distinctive feature of the Scandinavian languages, including Danish, is an enclitic definite article. To demonstrate: The common gender word "a man" (indefinite) is en mand but "the man" (definite) is manden. The neuter equivalent would be "a house" (indefinite) et hus, "the house" (definite) huset. Even though the definite and indefinite articles have separate origins, they have become homographs. In the plural the definite articles is -ene, whereas there is no indefinite article in the plural. The enclitic article is not used when an adjective is added to the noun; here the demonstrative pronoun is used instead: den store mand "the big man" and "the big house", det store hus

Like most Germanic languages, Danish joins compound nouns. The example kvindehåndboldlandsholdet, "the female handball national team", illustrates that it does so to a significantly higher degree than English. In some cases, nouns are joined with an extra s, like landsmand (from land, "country", and mand, "man", meaning "compatriot"), but landmand (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with an extra e, like gæstebog (from gæst and bog, meaning "guest book").

[modifică] Vocabular

Most Danish words are derived from the Old Norse language, with new words formed by compounding. A large percentage of Danish words, however, hails from Middle Low German (for example, betale = to pay, måske = maybe). Later on, standard German and French and now English have superseded Low German influence. Because English and Danish are related languages, many common words are very similar in the two languages. For example, the following Danish words are easily recognizable in their written form to English speakers: have, over, under, for, kat. When pronounced, these words sound quite different from their English equivalents, however. In addition, the suffix by, meaning "town", occurs in several English placenames, such as Whitby and Selby, as remnants of the Viking occupation.

[modifică] Numerale

In Danish numerals, the tens and units digits of numbers above 20 are reversed when spoken or written, such that 21 is rendered enogtyve or en-og-tyve, i.e. one and twenty. (The dashes in en-og-tyve and in the similar examples below are not commonly used, but are included here for clarity.) This is similar to German, Dutch and also to some variants of Bokmål Norwegian (sometimes known as Riksmål). Danish numerals from 50 to 90 are based on a vigesimal system similar to that of French not shared with the other Scandinavian languages. This means that the score (i.e. 20, tyve or, archaically, snes) is used as a base number: Tres (short for tre-sinds-tyve or tre snese) means 3 times 20, that is 60. Similarly, halvtreds (short for halvtred-sinds-tyve) means 2.5 times 20, that is 50. The numeral halvanden means 1.5 (literally "half second", i.e. the first plus half of the second). The numerals halvtredje (2.5) and halvfjerde (3.5), likewise constructed by "overcounting", are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system. The ending -indstyve is archaic in cardinal numbers, but still often used in ordinal numbers. Thus, "fifty-two" is usually rendered to-og-halvtreds, whereas "fifty-second" is either to-og-halvtredsende or to-og-halvtredsindstyvende. Many Danes are unaware of the vigesimal roots of such numerals.

[modifică] Scrierea

Danish is written using the Latin alphabet, with three additional letters: æ, ø, and å, which come at the end of the Danish alphabet, in that order. A spelling reform in 1948 introduced the letter å, already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the letter aa; the old usage still occurs in some personal and geographical names and old documents (for example, the name of the city of Ålborg is often spelled Aalborg). When representing the å sound, aa is treated just like å in alphabetical sorting, even though it looks like two letters.

The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as vilde, kunde and skulde, to their current forms of ville, kunne and skulle, and did away with the practice of capitalising all nouns, which German still does. Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs somewhat.

[modifică] Vezi şi

• Synnejysk
• Swadesh list of Danish words

[modifică] Bibliografie

• Basbøll, Hans (2005) The Phonology of Danish ISBN 0-19-824268-9

[modifică] Legături externe

Vezi şi articolele la

Wikipedia în Roamata/daneza

Format:Book

• Danish-English, English-Danish online dictionary
• All free Danish dictionaries
• Dictionary of the Danish Language
• "Speak Danish" 10 day intensive online course
• "STELLA Danish" free online course for beginners
• Ethnologue report for Danish
• Information on the Danish language
• Danish Dictionary from Webster's Dictionary
• Danish grammar
• Hear and learn useful expressions in Danish
• List of online Danish-language related resources

• Listă de limbi