Interlingua

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This article is about the auxiliary language created by the International Auxiliary Language Association. For other uses, see Interlingua (disambiguation).

Interlingua
Created by:	International Auxiliary Language Association (1951)
Setting and usage:	international auxiliary language, most popular in Northern and Eastern Europe and in South America
Total speakers:	unknown
Category (purpose):	constructed language international auxiliary language Interlingua
Category (sources):	Vocabulary: international; largely Greco-Latin Controls: Romance languages, English, German, and Russian
Regulated by:	no regulating body
Language codes
ISO 639-1:	`ia`
ISO 639-2:	`ina`
ISO/FDIS 639-3:	`ina`
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See IPA chart for English for an English-based pronunciation key.

Interlingua is an international auxiliary language (IAL) published in 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). It is the most widely used naturalistic auxiliary language. Interlingua combines the vocabulary common to the major Western languages with a simple and regular grammar, making it understandable at first sight to hundreds of millions of people. Conversely, Interlingua can be used to learn many other languages quickly and easily.

[edit] Rationale

Areas where a Romance language is commonly spoken are colored on the map. Interlingua should be well comprehensible to at least a large part of the more than 600 million native Romance speakers alone.

The expansive movements of science, technology, trade, diplomacy, and the arts, combined with the historical dominance of the Latin language has resulted in a large common vocabulary among Western languages. Interlingua uses an objective procedure to extract and standardize the most widespread word or words for a concept found in a set of control languages: English, French, Italian and Spanish/Portuguese, with German and Russian as secondary references. Words from any language are eligible for inclusion, so long as their internationality is shown by their presence in these control languages. Hence, Interlingua includes such diverse word forms as Japanese geisha and tsunami, Arabic califa, Aboriginal kanguru, and Finnish sauna. ^[1]

Interlingua combines this pre-existing vocabulary with a minimal grammar based on the control languages. People with a good knowledge of a Romance language, or a smattering of a Romance language plus a good knowledge of the international scientific vocabulary can frequently read and understand it at first sight. Educated speakers of English also enjoy this easy comprehension. The at-sight comprehension of Interlingua, in turn, makes it unusually easy to learn. Speakers of other languages can also learn to speak and write Interlingua in a very short time, thanks to its simplicity and regular word formation using a small set of affixes.

Words in Interlingua retain their natural form; they are never distorted to fit a pre-existing grammar or set of rules. Each word retains its normal spelling, pronunciation, and meanings. For this reason, Interlingua is frequently termed a naturalistic IAL.

[edit] History

[edit] International Auxiliary Language Association

Ultimate credit for Interlingua must go to the American heiress Alice Vanderbilt Morris (1874–1950), who became interested in linguistics and the international auxiliary language movement in the early 1920s. In 1923, Morris and her husband, David Hennen Morris, established the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) in New York. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a scientific basis.

The IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics, funding, for example, Edward Sapir's cross-linguistic semantic studies of totality (1930) and grading phenomena (1944). Morris herself edited Sapir and Morris Swadesh's 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and William Edward Collinson's 1937 study of indication. Although the Morrises provided most of IALA's funding, it also received support from such prestigious groups as the Carnegie Corporation, the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation.

In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about languages and interlinguistics; and comparing extant IALs, including Esperanto, Esperanto II, Ido, Latino Sine Flexione, Novial, and Occidental. In pursuit of this last goal it arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, debating features and goals of their representative languages. With a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, early debates at IALA sometimes grew from heated to explosive.

During the Second International Interlanguage Congress in Geneva in 1931, the IALA began to break new ground, as its conference was attended – and its efforts legitimized – by eminent linguists.

1933 was a major year for IALA. First, Professor Herbert N. Shenton of Syracuse University founded an intensive study about the problems that had been encountered in interlanguages when used in international conferences. Later, Dr. Edward L. Thorndike published a paper about the relative learning speeds of "natural" and "modular" constructed languages. Both Shenton and Thorndike were major influences on IALAs work from then on.

In 1937, the first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were made, when a committee of 24 linguists from 19 universities around the world published Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary (English title). However, the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the intended biannual meetings of the committee.

[edit] Development of a new language

Originally, the association had not set out to create its own language, but rather to identify which international language already available would be best suited to the task, and how to promote it most effectively. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of IALA came to the conclusion that none of the existing interlanguages were up to the task. By 1937, the members had arrived at the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community.

To that point, much of the debate had been equivocal on the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., Novial and Occidental) or systematic (e.g., Esperanto and Ido) words. During the war years, proponents of a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Dr. Thorndike's paper; the second was a concession by proponents of the systematic languages that thousands of words were already present in many – or even a majority – of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a Procrustian bed, forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when a usable vocabulary was already available. This finally convinced supporters of the systematic languages, and IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.

At the outbreak of World War II, IALA's research activities were moved from Liverpool to New York, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Dr. Alexander Gode, developed a prototyping technique – an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of control languages.

In 1943 Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. In 1945, IALA published a General Report – largely Morris's work – which presented three models for IALA's language:

Model P was a naturalistic model that made no attempt to regularize the prototyped vocabulary.
Model E was lightly schematicized along the lines of Occidental.
Model K was moderately schematicized along the lines of Ido (i.e., somewhat less schematicized than Esperanto).

From 1946 to 1948, the renowned French linguist André Martinet was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. An initial survey gauged reactions to the three models of 1945. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.

Four models were canvassed: Model P and K, plus two new models similar to Model E of 1945.

Model P	highly naturalistic	Jo habe nascite, o dea cum le oculos azure, de parentes barbare, inter le bone et virtuose Cimmerios
Model M	moderately naturalistic	Io have nascit, o dea con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuos Cimmerios
Model C	slightly schematic	Yo ha nascet, o deessa con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimerios
Model K	moderately schematic	Yo naskeba, o dea kon le okuli azure, de parenti barbare, inter le bone e virtuose Kimerii
(English)		'I was born, O goddess with the blue eyes, of barbarian relations, among the good and virtuous Cimmerians'
(modern Interlingua)		Io ha nascite, o dea con le oculos azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimmerios

Model P was unchanged from 1945; Model K was slightly modified in the direction of Ido.

The results of the survey were striking. The two more schematic models, C and K, were rejected – K overwhelmingly. Of the two naturalistic models, M attracted somewhat more support than P. Taking national biases into account (for example, the French who were polled disproportionately favored Model M), IALA decided on a compromise between models M and P, with certain elements of C.

[edit] Finalization

When Martinet took a position at Columbia University in 1948, Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. His task was to combine elements of Model M and Model P; take the flaws seen in both by the polled community and repair them with elements of Model C as needed; and simultaneously develop a vocabulary.

The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were first presented in 1951. That year, IALA published the finalized grammar, the 27,000-word Interlingua-English Dictionary (IED), and an introductory manual entitled Interlingua a Prime Vista ("Interlingua at First Sight").

[edit] Success, decline, and resurgence

An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter Spectroscopia Molecular, published from 1952 to 1980.[1] In 1954 Interlingua was employed at the Second World Cardiological Congress, in Washington DC, for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science Service, the publisher of Science Newsletter at the time, published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early 1950s until Gode's death in 1970.

The IALA closed its doors in 1953, although it was not formally dissolved until 1956 or even later. [2] Its role in promoting Interlingua was largely taken on by Science Service,[3] which hired Gode as head of its newly formed Interlingua Division.[4] A successor organization, the Interlingua Institute, [5] was founded in 1970 to promote Interlingua in the U.S. and Canada. The new institute supported the work of other linguistic organizations, made considerable scholarly contributions and continued to produce Interlingua precis for scholarly and medical publications. One of its largest achievements was two immense volumes on phytopathology produced by the American Phytopathological Society in 1976 and 1977.[6] In 2000, the Interlingua Institute was dissolved amid funding disputes with the UMI; the American Interlingua Society, established the following year, succeeded the institute and responded to new interest emerging in Mexico.[7]

The Interlingua Institute was adrift for a while with the deaths of Blair in 1967 and Gode in 1970. According to Esterhill, [8] however, publishing slowed only briefly in the late 1960s and revived soon afterward, at about the time of the 1971 second edition of the IED. Flourishing interest in Europe may have counterbalanced the struggles taking place in America.

Interlingua had attracted many former adherents of other international-language projects, notably Occidental and Ido. The former Occidentalist Ric Berger founded The Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) in 1955, [9] and by the late 1950s, interest in Interlingua in Europe had already begun to overtake that in North America. Media coverage at the time, for example, was apparently heaviest in Northern and Eastern Europe. Frequent European coverage has continued to date, joined by media attention in South America in the early 1990s [10].

Beginning in the 1980s UMI has held international conferences every two years (with a typical attendence of 50–100) and launched a publishing programme that eventually produced over 100 volumes. Other Interlingua-language works were published by university presses in Sweden and Italy. Several Scandinavian schools undertook projects that used Interlingua as a means of teaching the international scientific and intellectual vocabulary.

[edit] Interlingua today

See also Community

Today, interest in Interlingua has expanded from the scientific community to the general public. Individuals, governments, and private companies use Interlingua for learning and instruction, travel, online publishing, and communication across language barriers. Interlingua is promoted internationally by the Union Mundial pro Interlingua (president: Barbara Rubinstein, Sweden; secretary-general: Petyo Angelov, Bulgaria). Periodicals and books are produced by many national organizations, such as the Societate American pro Interlingua (president: Dr. Stanley Mulaik), the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua (secretary: Ingvar Stenström), and the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua (president: Gilson Passos).

Currently, Panorama In Interlingua is the most prominent of several Interlingua periodicals. It is a 28-page magazine published bimonthly that covers current events, science, editorials, and Interlingua. Thanks to the Internet, Interlingua has seen a resurgence over the last decade, with the number of speakers jumping tenfold by some estimates.

[edit] Vocabulary

The IALA set up a control group of seven Romance, German, and Slavic languages with much shared vocabulary, grouped into six units: French, Italian, Spanish/Portuguese (treated as one unit), and English, with German and Russian as alternatives. A word is eligible for Interlingua if it occurs with similar meanings in three or more of these units. Self-explanatory compounds can be included with support from at least one control language. Grammatical words, required to operate the language, are taken from Latin in the rare case when this procedure fails.

The form of an Interlingua word is the most recent form common to the historical or hypothetical words from which the national words evolved. Derivativational series, or series of words formed by suffixes, are also considered. The French oeil, Italian occhio, Spanish ojo and Portuguese olho 'eye' appear quite different, but they descend from a historical form oculus. This, and international derivatives like ocular and oculista, determine the form oculo to be used in Interlingua.

New words can be derived internally – that is, from existing Interlingua words – or extracted from the control languages in the manner of the original vocabulary. Internal word-building, though freer than in the control languages, is more limited than in schematic IALs. Most Interlingua dictionaries include only words with support in the control languages.

Interlingua as now used tends to have less Classical Latin vocabulary than IALA's original version, replaced in part by southern Romance vocabulary. For example emer 'to buy' has been mostly replaced by comprar; sed 'but' with ma; and nimis 'too' with troppo. However, other classical Latin words, such as pro 'for', contra 'against', post 'after' and ergo 'therefore' are retained because they are seen as more internationally understandable than their Romance counterparts.

Unassimilated words of foreign origin retain the spelling, pronunciation, and plurals of the original languages: affaire, bureau(x), software, interview(s), defait(s), cheque, standard(s), test(s), schizzo, rancho, kümmel, cappuccino (may change to cappuccini). Many users tend to substitute regular plurals, however, especially in less common words.

[edit] Phonology and orthography

[edit] Phonology

The following tables illustrate Interlingua's consonants and vowels respectively:

	Bilabial		Labio- dental		Alveolar		Post- alveolar		Palatal		Labial- velar		Velar		Glottal
Plosive	p	b			t	d							k	g
Nasal		m				n
Tap						ɾ
Fricative			f	v	s	z	ʃ	ʒ							h
Affricate					ʦ		ʧ
Approximant										j		w
Lateral approximant						l

	Front	Back
Close	i	u
Close-mid	e	o
Open	a

[edit] Orthography

For the most part, consonants are pronounced as in English, while the vowels are like Spanish or Italian. Four vowel pairs (AI, AU, EU, OI) are pronounced as falling diphthongs (/ai/, /au/, /eu/, /oi/). Exceptions are as follows:

C is "soft" (/ts/) before e, i, or y; otherwise "hard" /k/.
CH is most often /k/ and is used before e, i, or y or in words of Greek origin.
G is "hard" (/g/), except in the sequences -age and -agi- (preceding a vowel), where it has the sound of French j (/ʒ/).
H is silent in the combinations rh and th (/r/ and (/t/).
I is like English y /j/ before another vowel, unless stressed (union /u'njon/, via /'via/).
J is French j (/ʒ/).
Q is /k/ and occurs almost exclusively in the combination qu /kw/.
PH is /f/ in words of Greek origin.
R is lightly rolled or trilled /ɾ/, /r/, as in Italian or Spanish.
TI becomes /tsj/ before a vowel, unless the i is stressed or in the combination -sti- (nation /na'tsjon/; but politia /po.li'tia/, question /kwe'stjon/.
U is /w/ before another vowel, unless stressed (continuar /kon.ti'nwar/, duo /'du.o/.

Y has the same value as i, and double consonants are pronounced as single (fila /'fi.la/, illa /'i.la/). Finally, unassimilated words of foreign origin are pronounced as in the original language.

[edit] Alternative pronunciations

Alternative pronunciations are permitted for some letters and combinations:

Some speakers pronounce "soft" C as /s/ or /tʃ/ rather than /ts/.
H is optionally silent in all positions.
Many speakers pronounce J and "soft" G like English j /dʒ/.
P is optionally silent in initial pn-, ps-, and pt-.
QU is pronounced as /k/ before e or i by some speakers . Almost all speakers pronounce the particles que and qui as /ke, ki/.
S may be voiced [z] between two vowels. SS is always /s/.
Some speakers pronounce the "soft" TI as /sj/ rather than /tsj/. A few keep it "hard" (/tj/).
X may be voiced [gz] between two vowels.

[edit] Stress

The general rule is that stress falls on the vowel before the last consonant (e.g., lingua, esser, requirimento, 'language', 'to be', 'requirement'), and where that isn't possible, on the first vowel (via, 'way', io crea, 'I create'). There are a few exceptions, and the following rules account for most of them:

Adjectives and nouns ending in with a vowel followed by -le, -ne, or -re are stressed on the third-last syllable (fragile, margine, altere 'other', but illa impone 'she imposes').
Words ending in -ica/-ico, -ide/-ido and -ula/-ulo, are stressed on the third-last syllable (politica, scientifico, rapide, stupido, capitula, seculo 'century').
Words ending in -ic are stressed on the second-last syllable (cubic).

Users may pronounce all words according to the general rule mentioned above. For example, kilometro is acceptable, although kilometro is preferred for etymological reasons. Finally, the addition of a plural suffix doesn't change the stress of a noun (canton, cantones).

[edit] Loanwords

Like its source languages, Interlingua has a number of words that are considered to be loanwords; they exhibit traits that deviate from the norm presented in this section. For example, they may have foreign sounds like the voiceless velar fricative [x] and the close front rounded vowel [y], or marks such as diacritics (accent marks). If the diacritics would be superfluous given the pronunciation system of Interlingua, they are removed.

[edit] Grammar

For more details on this topic, see Interlingua grammar.

The grammar of Interlingua is similar to that of the Romance languages, but greatly simplified, primarily under the influence of English. If a grammatical feature was absent from at least one of the primary control languages, it was dropped. Thus, Interlingua has no noun-adjective agreement (Spanish and Portuguese gatos negros, 'black cats'), since this is absent from English, and no progressive verb tenses (English I am reading), since they are absent from French. The definite article le is invariable, as in English.

Nouns have no grammatical gender. Plurals are formed by adding -s, or -es after a final consonant (for a final c, add -h- and then -es). Pronouns take only two forms: one for the subject and indirect object, and the other for the direct object. Most adverbs are derived regularly from adjectives by adding -(a)mente.

The verb system is a simplified version of the systems found in the Romance languages. Verbs take the same form for all persons (io, tu, illa vive, 'I live', 'you live', 'she lives'). The only exceptions are some optional forms for esser, 'to be'. The indicative (pare, 'appear', 'appears') is the same as the imperative (pare! 'appear!'), and there is no subjunctive. Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense: es for 'is', 'am', 'are;' ha for 'has', 'have;' and va for 'go', 'goes'. A few irregular verb forms are available, but rarely used.

There are four simple tenses/moods (the present, past, and future tenses and the conditional mood) and four compound tenses/moods/voices (the past and future tenses, the conditional mood, and the passive voice). These compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle (e.g., Ille ha arrivate, 'He has arrived'). Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., Nos haberea morite, 'We would have died'). See Interlingua grammar.

Word order is essentially Subject–Verb–Object, except that direct object pronouns come before the verb (Io les vide, 'I see them') as in the Romance languages. Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify, but they most often precede it. The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense.

[edit] Community

It's not known how many people have an active knowledge of Interlingua, but their numbers have grown consistently over most of the past half-century. As noted above, Interlingua is the most widely spoken naturalistic auxiliary language.

Interlingua's greatest advantage is that it is the most widely understood International Auxiliary Language (IAL) by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with a Romance language, and educated speakers of English, to read and understand it without prior study.

Interlingua has active speakers on all continents, especially in South America and in Eastern and Northern Europe, most notably Scandinavia. There are copious Interlingua web pages (including editions of Wikipedia and Wiktionary) and a number of periodicals, including Panorama in Interlingua from the Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) and magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain Usenet newsgroups, particularly in the europa.* hierarchy. In recent years, samples of Interlingua have also been seen in music and animé. Interlingua is also presented on CDs, radio, and television.^[2]

Interlingua is taught in many high schools and universities, sometimes as a means of teaching other languages quickly, presenting interlinguistics, or introducing the international vocabulary. The prestigious University of Granada in Spain, for example, offers an Interlingua course in collaboration with the Centro de Formación Continue.^[3]

Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different European country; the most recent conference (2005), in Sweden, was attended by slightly over 250 people. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden. National organizations such as the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua also organize regular conferences.

[edit] Criticisms and controversies

While Interlingua is a successful auxiliary language, it has its share of criticism, frequently from proponents of other auxiliary languages, which most often focus on issues it was never meant to address in the first place. This may be partially due to both opponents and supporters seeing Interlingua as a candidate for being the universal second "neutral" language for the world to use.

Being a European-based language, Interlingua is not easily presented as a neutral language for the whole world instead of just Europe or the Western world, although one could argue that favoring some with the choice of vocabulary would be acceptable as long as it wouldn't make it harder for others to learn. Speakers of languages other than Indo-European have an additional disadvantage.

Conversely, Interlingua has been put forward as a useful language for study as an introduction to Indo-European languages in general, and Romance languages in particular. In fact, Interlingua has been taught at Swedish high schools for this purpose.

One point of criticism that does take Interlingua's design goals into account is that its credential as being "Standard Average European" is too weak outside the Romance languages. Some opponents see the Germanic, Slavic, and Celtic languages, in particular, as having little influence.

Proponents point out that Interlingua's source languages include not only Romance languages but English, German, and Russian as well. Moreover, the source languages are widely spoken internationally, and large numbers of their words also appear in other languages – still more when derivative forms and loan translations are included. Tests showed that if a larger number of source languages were used, the results would be about the same. So, IALA selected a much simpler extraction procedure for Interlingua with little adverse effect on its internationality. In addition, the grammar of Interlingua is still simpler than most or all Indo-European languages, contributing to ease of learning.

Finally, other auxiliary languages have a mix of words that is similar to Interlingua's, but accidentally hidden. Wordforms are frequently altered to fit pre-established rules of grammar and orthography. For example, all accusative adjectives might end in -en, or the letter x might be replaced by combinations such as gz and ks. In addition, some schematic languages contain words that look unfamiliar because they are entirely invented. Thus, the linguistic mix of the schematic auxiliary languages is not so much sweeping and inclusive as difficult to make out.

See also: Irregularities and exceptions in Interlingua and Ido and Interlingua compared

[edit] Samples

The Lord's Prayer:

Nostre Patre, qui es in le celos,

que tu nomine sia sanctificate;

que tu regno veni;

que tu voluntate sia facite

super le terra como etiam in le celo.

Da nos hodie nostre pan quotidian,

e pardona a nos nostre debitas

como nos pardona a nostre debitores,

e non duce nos in tentation,

sed libera nos del mal.

Loosely translated excerpt from "The Care and Feeding of Mad Scientists" by L. Sprague de Camp, from Astounding Science Fiction, Vol. XLVII, No. 5, July 1951, page 128:

Scientistas varia justo como nos alteros. Il ha sapientes e fatuos, sobrios e dissipatos, solitarios e gregarios, corteses e inciviles, puritanos e licentiosos, industriosos e pigros, et cetera. Como genere illes exhibi certe tendentias. Per exemplo, illes son totos de alte intelligentia. Le scientista pote esser stupide re certe cosas, ma ille debe haber le basic potentia mental que es requirite pro devenir scientista; ille non pote esser imbecille in le stricte senso psychometric.

Translation back into English:

Scientists vary just like the rest of us. There are the wise and the foolish, the sober and the dissipated, the solitary and the gregarious, the courteous and the rude, the puritanical and the licentious, the industrious and the lazy, and so on. As a type they exhibit certain tendencies. For example, they are all of high intelligence. The scientist may be stupid about certain things, but he must have the basic mental capacity that is required to become a scientist; he cannot be a moron in the strict psychometric sense.

[edit] References

^ Gode, Alexander, et al. Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
^ "Radioemissiones in e re Interlingua," Panorama in Interlingua, Issue 3, 2006.
^ "A notar," Panorama in Interlingua, Issue 4, 2006.

[edit] Other sources

Falk, Julia S. Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century. Routledge, London & New York: 1999.
Gode, Alexander, et al. Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
Gode, Alexander, and Hugh E. Blair. Interlingua: a grammar of the international language. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
Gopsill, F.P. Le historia antenatal de Interlingua.. (In Interlingua.) Accessed 28 May 2005.
International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). General Report. IALA, New York: 1945.
Pei, Mario. One Language for the World and How To Achieve It. Devin-Adair, New York; 1958.
Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos (in Interlingua). Accessed 17 August 2006.